Objective Research Writing:

Be Like Switzerland

By Randee Baty at The Lukeion Project

    What is Switzerland known for besides its fabulous chocolate, beautiful mountains, and high-quality knives? It is neutrality, of course! You, as an academic writer, should strive for that same quality. Strong academic writing is neutral and objective. In a world where feelings sometime seem to prevail over reason and truth seems like a moving target, scholarship should be a world where evidence, neutrality, and objectivity rule. Contrary to what many students may think, professors do not care how you feel about anything, at least as far as academic writing is concerned. They care what you can validate objectively with evidence.

Objectivity is crucial in academic writing because it ensures academic honesty. The reader should be able to trust that what a researcher is saying is based on evidence and findings, not on the author’s opinion. A quick way for me to tell whether the paper I am reading is based on evidence and not on opinion or feeling is to watch for words such as “unfortunately,” “sadly,” or “regrettably.”

“Unfortunately, a flight to Mars cannot happen in this decade” tells me that the author has formed an emotional attachment to her subject. The author is not just reporting evidence, but also editorializing on it. “Happily,” “fortunately,” and “luckily” are just as bad. Rather than analyzing and interpreting the data she finds, she is offering her opinion about it. Leave anything out of your academic research writing that spell out your feelings on the subject. Analyze and draw conclusions about your evidence and your topic so that the reader can clearly see what your interpretation of the data rather than your feelings about the data. You may conclude that colonizing Mars is doable and worthwhile. In formal academic writing, the reader should not know whether you love the idea of becoming a Martian. He should only know your conclusion based on data. Once you spell out how you feel about your topic, all research going forward will be—and should be—suspect in the eyes of the reader.

Not only do words such as “sadly” or “luckily” show your feelings about the subject, but they also take the writing from a formal tone to an informal tone. This alone is enough to cause the reader to question the seriousness of your work. Solid research is harder to produce than opinions. A piece filed with personal emotions about a topic may seem more like a blog or op-ed and give the impression that that the paper is poor effort. Communicating evidence well is challenging work. If you say, “As shown in the Journal of Mars Exploration, the cost of colonizing Mars may be less than NASA originally thought,” you will get a better response from your professor than if you say, “We should jump on the chance to go to Mars because it won’t cost that much.” The first sounds like someone did their research. The second sounds like someone wants to be Captain Kirk.

Another way that a research author can show subjectivity rather than objectivity is to promote only resources that agree with the opinion you already have. This is confirmation bias. As a researcher / writer, be willing to follow evidence wherever it takes you. Do not assume you already know the outcome or stick to your conclusion when evidence takes you elsewhere. You may be sure that you know whether it is possible for humans to colonize Mars, but if you don’t keep an open mind to following the evidence in your sources, you end up only reading the sources that agree with you and miss important evidence that might show your initial thoughts are in error.

One of my most satisfying moments as a teacher was when a student told me, “I thought I knew exactly what the research was going to show me, but after reading several sources, I’ve completely changed my mind on this topic.” Be sure you are following the evidence and not cherry-picking it to suit a pre-conceived idea. Look for counterarguments to your point of view. Weigh their merits. Be honest, neutral, and objective about the evidence.

Speaking of those sources, be scrupulous in finding the most trustworthy, objective sites you can find. Using trustworthy sources assures your reader that your conclusions are not based on assumptions or unsupported opinions. Do not use a source if it does not have verifiable credentials. Take the time to find out who the author is and why you should trust her. Most websites will not meet the criteria needed for scholarly research and writing. Use academic publications, such as those found on JSTOR or in a research library, to ensure that your readers have reason to trust your conclusions are based in fact and not in opinion. Do not consult and cite sites such as Wikipedia, The History Channel, and personal blogs when you are trying to remain neutral and objective.

Switzerland is certainly the most beautiful country I’ve visited outside of the United States (plus the paragliding is fabulous!) Keep it in mind as you do academic writing and research. Reward yourself with a great piece of chocolate once that paper is handed in!

Learn the Rules and Tools for Good Academic Writing

Focus, Development, Organization, Sources, Technique, Editing

 By Randee Baty at The Lukeion Project

    “My teacher just doesn’t like my writing style!” I remember my daughter coming home from college with this complaint about her English professor.

    Most writing instructors and professors don’t care about style, at least not as students think about "writing style.” Those that evaluate student writing for a living have fairly objective criteria for judging a student’s work, whether it is creative, academic, or any other type of writing. Parents and students alike can learn to apply the same criteria to any writing project to see if something is objectively well-written or poorly written.

    Writing instructors, at least the kind most likely to help build strong student writing skills, typically use rubrics to grade writing. If they don’t use a rubric, they have some sort of checklist that keeps them focused on objectively analyzing student writing. Our rubric for research writing at The Lukeion Project has six criteria: focus, development, organization, use of sources, technique, and editing. These guideposts provide clear goals for students to meet without worrying whether the instructor “likes” their “style” or even agrees with their conclusions!

Focus

    The paper should relentlessly focus on the prompt given. For instance, if a student is asked to analyze Moby-Dick, they are not being asked for a biography of Herman Melville. That is extraneous information unless something in Moby-Dick specifically relates to the author’s life. Then the student would need to give enough information to relate those elements together, but not more. Analyze the prompt, know what you are being asked, and don’t stray away from the prompt as you devise your answer. If you do, the instructor will deduct points because of a lack of focus. Well-written papers are focused.

Development   

    Whatever point the writer wishes to make requires evidence or analytical reasoning to back it up. Unsupported statements or claims will not fly in academic writing. If a student says that Julius Caesar was an ambitious leader on his way to becoming a tyrant, he must provide plenty of evidence to support his conclusion. The student can’t, like Brutus and Cassius, simply make guesses about Caesar’s plans. Students should give examples of his behavior and use analysis of his behavior and accomplishments to make their point. Vague thoughts or feelings won’t work. It’s all about evidence and analysis. Whether or not the instructor agrees with conclusions does not matter in the paper’s grade as long as the writer has strong support and evidence to back up the argument. Well-written papers have evidence and analysis to support the author’s point.

Organization

    A good paper will have proper essay structure, paragraph structure, and reasonable progression through the argument being made. The essay needs to begin with an introduction that ends in a thesis statement. Well-developed body paragraphs must follow with relevant evidence. Evidence and analysis must relate back to the thesis statement without getting off track. The conclusion should tie all the evidence together and answer the “so what?” test (your readers should never wonder “so what?” after reading your work).

    Paragraphs should begin with a topic sentence, and everything in that paragraph must relate to that topic sentence. One point of the student’s argument must logically follow the previous point. If a student argues that settling Mars is too expensive for NASA to consider, she shouldn’t follow that conclusion by listing the benefits of settling Mars. Simply following logical thought-progressions will go a long way to improve a good analytical project. Check through the paper to ensure it progresses in an organized manner toward the conclusion. Well-written papers are organized and flow from one point to the next.

Excellent Sources

  Use sources appropriate to the paper. Always use them in a way that enhances the argument rather than hijacking it. Always cite the sources are appropriately. Appropriate sources offer credibility to the written project, but students struggle to understand what sources trustworthy and which ones are best left out. For example, some hobbyist’s blog or opinion piece won’t offer much credibility but a source written by a person with a proven academic track record as an expert in the topic will be best for a good academic assignment. Check the credentials of the writer so you are only using the best and most reliable expert sources. If you can’t tell who the author is or find out that author’s background in that subject area, don’t use that source! 

Works that are older than about 25 years should be used with caution on many academic topics to avoid using out-of-date information. Only use an older source if you can verify that that source is foundational and formative for an understanding of your subject matter. If you aren’t aware how much more we’ve come to know about most subjects over the last 25 years, you are the perfect candidate to avoid all older academic sources! In that span of time, we’ve gone from email being new and optional to vast libraries of data being accessible at every laptop in mere seconds after a few keystrokes. Most 16-year-old writers can’t appreciate what data-accessibility has done to change the shape of research in the last two decades. Parents, here’s where you get to entertain your student with stories about life before technology!   

Once you accumulate several reliable researchers in your subject matter, don’t let those sources replace the point that you want to make. Quoting extensively from a biography on J.R.R. Tolkien must never replace the argument you were supposed to be making on the influences of Finnish authors on The Lord of the Rings. Quotations or information from any source must enhance what the student has already observed from their reading of Tolkien. Don’t let one (or two or three) sources hijack a paper. An author must always do her own analysis. Too many quotations turn the paper into a wiki rather than an academic research paper and will show the instructor that you are more focused on hitting the word-count rather than examining and analyzing relevant information.  

Part of using sources well is mastering how to cite sources well. Citing your sources is a foundational principle in academic writing but it strikes fear in the heart of student and parent alike primarily due to a lack of experience with citation. The good news is this: methods for citing are set. Students should learn either MLA or APA formatting as early as possible during late middle school and high school. MLA is the most used formatting method in the humanities and by most colleges. Various resources are available to help students learn these methods but writing that doesn’t cite sources will be graded very harshly. Good writing uses sources must support rather than hijack an argument and all sources must be cited whether they are being quoted or employed to supply any relevant data.

Technique

There are several essential writing conventions that young authors must learn, master, and employ evermore. These are the basic rules of academic writing. These techniques are fairly different from casual writing (like this blog) or creative composition. Being aware of these academic writing laws show that the student writer comprehends the task well and is writing skillfully.  These are things that can be objectively graded because good writing uses the techniques expected when one scholar writes to another. Here are a few of the biggies on the list of academic writing laws:

• Always write in third person (he, she, it, they) with no first (I, we) or second person (you) ever appearing in any academic writing.
• Keep writing concise. Use no unnecessary words such as “very,” “interestingly,” “in conclusion,” “furthermore,” or “really.” In fact, simply eliminate 95% of your modifiers and intensifiers. They always clutter and conceal rather than enhance. You might arrive at your word count faster by including them, but your work will be judged more harshly.
• Remove all slang, cliches, or casual language. There’s plenty of room in casual and creative writing for these things. They don’t belong in academic writing.
• Keep the writing in an academic tone while you avoid sounding pompous or pretentious.
• Use the shortest word that fits the sentence rather than the longest word (use “use” rather than utilize “utilize.”). The reader should be able to read without stumbling over difficult constructions or long rambling sentences with too many clauses.

Proofreading

         Employ proper spelling, punctuation, and grammar always. Use proper formatting according to MLA, APA, or whatever format the instructor requires (and remember that everything in a paper is formatted). Edit your work several times before handing it off to somebody else to read. If you really want to catch all errors, have that person read your work out loud to you. No matter how many times you edit your work by reading it silently to yourself, an objective reader will always find areas that need work.

         As you can read, nothing here says anything about “style” per se. Grading for academic work is clear-cut and nothing is subjective or based on mood, whim, or personality. If you get a lower-than-preferred score, it is because one or more of these areas are lacking, not because the instructor dislikes your style. By focusing on these aspects, you’ll be able to objectively help your student--or help yourself--become a better writer.

 

Read Out Loud?

4 Benefits (and more) of Reading like the Ancients

Dr. Sue Fisher at The Lukeion Project

    When was the last time you read out loud? If you have small children around you, you probably do this on a regular basis, but as those children get older and can read for themselves, this practice generally drifts away. Reading becomes a solitary affair, usually undertaken in silence except for the occasional sharing of a quip or a quote.

    For this reason, it often comes as a surprise to my students that it was the customary practice for the Greeks and Romans to read out loud. In the pre-technological world, recitations were common forms of entertainment and public speeches were an important part of civic life. Reading aloud was not just for public affairs, however. Reading out loud privately was a customary practice well into at least the 17th century.

    Today, however, reading out loud after childhood is associated with incapability. The image of a dim-witted gomerel attempting to sound out easily pronounced words is an image all too readily conjured up. Anyone who has enjoyed a well-narrated audible book, however, knows that literature in the hands of a skilled reader can enhance the text and bring that book to life in ways that simple reading often cannot.

    While the modern world does not always afford the time and place for reading aloud, there are both practical and esoteric advantages to be gained when one adopts this practice. 

 

Better Focus:

    When reading a difficult text or something that is not necessarily of deep interest, it is all too easy for our minds to wander off. Soundbite culture has only added to this problem. The practice of reading out loud is an easy remedy to this problem because it incorporates more than one sense to get the job done. Engaging your mouth and your ears along with your eyes and your brain makes it harder to lose attention. 

 

Better Speaking:

    Reading out loud forces the speaker to pronounce the words they are encountering. Science has shown that people recognize words in blocks rather than by syllable. This is what makes it easy to mix up words that begin and end the same way. When reading silently it is easy to identify the word as a block and quickly move on. A reader may not be able to pronounce those words gracefully if at all. Likewise, out loud reading forces a speaker to slow down, take pauses that allow for processing of the text, and also imbue the words with feeling. All of these practices are foundational for good public speaking. 

 

Better Appreciation:

    Some works are written to be heard as well as read. Imagine Dr. Martin Luther King’s I Have a Dream speech or Lewis Carrol’s Jabberwocky. You likely imagined them being spoken or heard rather than reading them. Impassioned words, meter, rhyme, and other literary devices all can be seen with the eyes but were created for the ears. This is where their interest lies, and they simply cannot be fully appreciated without being read out loud. 

 

Better Editing:

    Reading out loud is the simplest and most effective tool for editing your work. The very thing that keeps most of us from reading aloud, the fact that it slows you down, is the very thing that makes reading out loud such an effective tool for editing. Reading out loud provides an opportunity for the ears to hear what the eyes might miss. For instance, while reading aloud, a person naturally pauses in places and these pauses can be excellent indicators of where commas or periods are needed. Running out of breath is a good indicator that a sentence is a run-on and needs to be divided. Lack of clarity becomes more apparent. The list goes on and on. 

 

    While these are some of the practical, academic reasons for targeted out loud reading, there are some less measurable benefits as well. The greatest of these, in my opinion, is the opportunity it provides for camaraderie. Studies have shown that reading to children is as much about bonding and relationship as it is about the story and skills themselves. This is not something that disappears when people reach a certain age. Sharing a story, or an article, or a poem or a speech out loud provides opportunities for common experiences and discussions that strengthen relationships; the benefits of this, in turn, are immeasurable.